Types of child abuse and what to look for

Definitions of each type of child abuse and what to look for, including physical and behavioural signs in children.

Schools

Child safety guidance for teachers, educators and staff working in schools.

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Physical child abuse

Physical child abuse is the intentional infliction of physical injury or harm of a child.

Physical child abuse can also occur when someone intentionally or recklessly causes a child to believe that physical force is about to be used against them without their consent. This includes the use of words or gestures that cause a child to believe that they are about to suffer physical violence.

Examples of physical abuse may include:

hitting
punching
kicking
beating
pushing or throwing something that strikes a child
shaking or burning
assault with implements
female genital mutilation.

Apprehended physical violence is when a child believes that someone is about to harm them. This can happen even if no one touches the child. For example, if someone hits an object near to a child, causing the child to fear they might be hit.

What to look out for in students

Physical signs that may indicate physical child abuse include:

bruises, burns, sprains, dislocations, bites, cuts, fractured bones, especially those:

where the type of injury is unlikely to have occurred accidentally
that are not consistent with the explanation offered

cuts and grazes to the mouth, lips, gums, eye area, ears, or external genitalia
bald patches where hair may have been pulled out
many multiple injuries - old and new
effects of poisoning

for example, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, falling over, abdominal pain, fitting

frequent psychosomatic complaints

for example, headaches, nausea, abdominal pains

signs of internal injuries

for example, stomach aches, deep bruising, prolonged vomiting or diarrhoea, headaches. Behavioural signs that may indicate physical child abuse include:

inconsistent or unlikely explanation
inability to remember the cause of an injury
being very passive and compliant
showing wariness or distrust of adults
poor sleep patterns and emotional dysregulation

for example, appearing nervous, hyperactive, aggressive, disruptive, or destructive to self or others

developmental regression

for example, bed-wetting

wearing long-sleeved clothes on hot days to hide bruising or other injury
becoming fearful when other children cry or shout
being excessively clingy to certain adults
a strong desire to please or receive validation from certain adults.

for example, an overcommitment to excelling in academic or athletic performance

unclear boundaries and understanding of relationships between adults and children
physical abuse or cruelty to others, including pets
eating disorders, substance abuse, suicidal thoughts, or self-harm
a change in usual behaviour.

Child sexual abuse

Child sexual abuse is when a person uses power or authority over a child to involve them in sexual activity. It includes sexual behaviours against, or near a child. It can include sexual activities that:

a child does not understand
a child does not or cannot consent to
are not accepted by the community
are unlawful.

Child sexual abuse can take many forms and does not always involve physical contact. Examples of child sexual abuse include:

grooming
sexual or inappropriate touching
showing private parts or genitals
making a child pose, undress or do sexual or inappropriate acts
talking to a child in a sexual or inappropriate way
making a child look at sexual or inappropriate photos or films
making, sharing or possessing child exploitation material.

Child sexual abuse can occur within families, by people in organisations and online:

These can be people the child or young person may or may not know.
It can occur once or more than once.

Child sexual offences include:

any sexual act between a person and a child under 16 years old under their care, supervision or authority
any sexual act involving a child under 12 years old
any sexual act involving a child between 12 and 15 years old, where the age difference is more than 2 years
any sexual act between an adult and a child under 16 years old
a situation between two minors where one exerts power over the other

this includes forcing, coercing or persuading a child to engage in any type of sexual act.

What to look out for in students

Being aware of the signs of grooming can help protect children and young people from child sexual abuse. A child or young person may show signs of being a victim of grooming in different ways.

They may show all or some of the following signs:

developing an unusually close connection with an older person
having gifts or money from new friends or someone that they cannot account for
being very secretive about their phone, internet or social media use
going missing for long periods of time
appearing extremely tired, including at school
being dishonest about who they have been with and where they have been
substance misuse
assuming a new name, having false identification, a stolen passport or driver licence, or a new phone
being collected from school by an older or new friend. Physical signs may not be identifiable without a disclosure or an assessment by a health professional.

Physical signs may include:

injury to the genital or rectal area.

for example, bruising, bleeding, discharge, inflammation, infection

injury to areas of the body such as breasts, buttocks or upper thighs
discomfort in urinating or defecating
presence of foreign bodies in the vagina or rectum
sexually transmitted infections
frequent urinary tract infections
pregnancy, especially in young adolescents
anxiety-related illnesses

for example, eating disorders.

Grooming

Grooming is when an adult engages in predatory conduct to prepare a child or young person under the age of 16 for future sexual activity. This can be with the groomer or with another adult. Grooming can occur face-to-face, online or a combination of both.

Grooming behaviour can involve the use of a variety of manipulative and controlling techniques. These can be used to build trust or normalise sexually harmful behaviour.

Children and young people are often groomed before they are sexually abused. Grooming does not always involve sexual activity or even discussion of sexual activity. ‘Grooming’ includes a wide range of intentional behaviours that manipulate and control a child. These behaviours can also be used on the child’s family, kin and carers, other support networks, or organisations. This is used to perpetrate child sexual abuse.

Grooming can also be used to exploit others for financial, criminal or terrorism purposes. This type of grooming is often characterised by emotional manipulation. The groomer builds trust and rapport with the child or young person for an undisclosed aim.

Grooming is a criminal offence under the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) and is a form of child abuse and sexual misconduct. It is also a form of Reportable Conduct.

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Common grooming behaviours

Grooming of a child or young person, online or in-person or a combination of both, may include:

building their trust, including through special attention or gifts
treating them like an adult to make them feel different and special
gaining the trust of their parents, family or carers
isolating them from supportive and protective family and friends
convincing them to use different online platforms to evade detection, including those using encrypted technologies
coercing them, including through threats, stalking and asking them to keep secrets
manipulating them to blame themselves for the situation
non-sexual touching of the child or young person that develops into sexual behaviour over time.

Common stages of grooming

There are a number of stages that may occur throughout the process of grooming. However, not all of these stages need to have occurred and they may occur in any order.

The child or young person is targeted. While any child can be sexually abused, some perpetrators may target children that are more vulnerable. For example, children and young people that are socially isolated or are part of a marginalised social, economic, racial or cultural group.
Building trust. Perpetrators often present as trustworthy, reputable, generous, and likeable. They may build a child or young person’s trust through special attention or gifts. In some situations, whole families or organisations can be groomed as a result of the perceived trustworthiness of a perpetrator.
Isolation. Perpetrators may progressively isolate a child or young person from supportive family and friends. They may seek to fill roles in a child or young person’s life that provide practical or emotional support.
Sexualisation. Perpetrators may gradually introduce sexualised content or discussions to a child or young person in order to normalise this behaviour. They will often then exploit this to encourage or coerce the child to engage in sexual activity, produce child sexual abuse imagery or participate in sexualised in-person or virtual chats. This behaviour may escalate slowly or quickly.
Control. Perpetrators often use secrecy, shame, blame, coercion and threats to maintain control in order to perpetuate the abuse and ensure the child or young person’s silence.

What to look out for in students

Sometimes it is hard to see when someone is being groomed. Some grooming behaviour can look like ’normal’ caring behaviour. If you have concerns about grooming, you must act by following the 4 Critical Actions.

Behavioural signs that may indicate an adult is grooming a child include:

developing an unusually close connection with an older person
displaying mood changes

for example, hyperactive, secretive, hostile, aggressive, impatient, resentful, anxious, withdrawn, depressed

going missing for long periods
appearing at school extremely fatigued
being evasive or dishonest about where they have been and whom they have been with
spending less time with friends or changing friendship groups suddenly
having gifts or money from new friends that they cannot account for
being very secretive about their phone, internet and social media use
substance misuse
frequently staying out overnight, especially with an older person
assuming a new name, being in possession of false identification, a stolen passport or driver’s licence
being picked up by an older or new friend from school. Some of these behavioural signs of grooming will not apply. Some will be different when a student is being groomed by an adult in the school environment.

A student may not always understand that they are being groomed. They may be manipulated into believing that:

they have brought the abuse on themselves
they are in control, but the adult who is grooming them is slowly gaining more control
the grooming is an expression of love.

What to look out for in adults

Behavioural signs that may indicate an adult is grooming a student include:

asking children and young people to keep secrets
relying on online or mobile phone communication and avoiding meeting face-to-face
overstepping social boundaries

for example, turning up uninvited

telling children about their personal and/or romantic problems
interrupting conversations other adults are having with the child or speaking for the child
offering to do chores or repairs around the family house
offering to babysit the child
offering to take the child to activities

for example, sports, camping

offering to tutor, mentor or coach the child one-on-one
offering to drive the child to and from school/activities
inappropriate preferential treatment of child

for example, giving gifts

openly or pretending to accidentally expose the child to nudity
contacting the child via social media or private phone
fostering a close relationship with the caregivers, which may be flirtatious or romantic
flattering caregivers
showing an excessive interest in the child’s activities, wellbeing, school grades or other areas of a child’s life. Adults who are grooming children may:
rely on mobile phones, social media and the internet to interact with children in inappropriate ways
ask the child to keep their relationship a secret
continue the grooming process for months or years before sexually abusing the child or young person
continue with predatory conduct but not seek to sexually abuse a child.

Child sexual exploitation

Child sexual exploitation is a form of sexual abuse.

Child sexual exploitation can include:

organised exploitation and trafficking
use of technology or the internet to facilitate the sexual abuse of a child. For example, the production and sharing of child sexual abuse material online
blackmail
forced marriage
child sexual slavery
prostitution
creation, sharing and possession of child sexual abuse material
procuring other children or young people on behalf of the exploiter.

People engaged in child sexual exploitation use their power over a child or young person to sexually or emotionally abuse them. They can be highly secretive and can use false identities. Offenders can provide children or young people with something in exchange for participating in sexual activities. This could include food, accommodation, drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, affection, gifts or money.

Exploitation can occur in person or online. Sometimes the child or young person might not know they are a victim.

There are other forms of child exploitation that may not be sexual. These may include unlawful drug trafficking, child labour, military activity or terrorism. See exposing children to violent extremism.

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What to look out for in students

Child sexual exploitation can be hard to identify, however there are warning signs.

Behavioural signs that may indicate a child is being exploited include:

regular absences from school, missing training, work or other activities
going missing for long periods or appearing at school extremely fatigued
being evasive or dishonest about where they’ve been and whom they’ve been with
developing an unusually close connection with an older person
displaying mood changes

for example, hyperactive, secretive, aggressive, anxious, withdrawn

using street or different language or copying the way a new friend may speak
talking about new friends who don’t belong to their normal social circle
presenting at school with gifts or money given by new friends
having large amounts of money, which they cannot account for
using a new mobile phone (possibly given to them by a new friend)
excessively making calls, videos or sending text messages
being very secretive about their phone, internet and social media use
using drugs – physical evidence includes spoons, aluminium foil, ‘tabs’, ‘rocks’ or pieces of ripped cardboard
assuming a new name, being in possession of false identification, a stolen passport or driver’s licence
being picked up by an older or new friend from school or down the street
talking as if from a scripted speech
unwillingness to discuss their views
sudden disrespectful attitude towards others. Any child or young person of any age or background can be a victim of sexual exploitation. Children who are isolated, have fewer connections to trusted adults and less confidence or ability to speak out are more likely to be exploited.

Signs in their relationships may indicate a student may be exposed to sexual exploitation. You may notice or students may disclose:

threats to end their relationship if they don’t have sex
demands that they have sex with other people
expectations to provide sex in return for food, a place to stay, drugs or gifts
threats to cease the relationship if sexual ‘dares’ are not carried out
receiving money in return for sexual acts
requests to provide sexual photos or sharing sexual photos online or via text
threats to humiliate or share sexual images of victims if they don’t carry out sexual acts.

What to look out for in people exploiting children

People who are exploiting children may:

rely on mobile phones, social media and the internet to interact with children in inappropriate ways
often ask the child to keep their contact secret
engage in a grooming process for months before arranging a physical meeting
form an inappropriate relationship where they exercise power or control over a young person.

There may be a significant age gap.
The victim may believe they are in a loving relationship or friendship initially, but the relationship then changes and the offender uses their power over the young person to coerce, intimidate and continue the abuse.

often not act alone and may work with other adults or enlist children to recruit more children and young people to exploit.

Emotional or psychological child abuse

Emotional or psychological child abuse is when someone deliberately and repeatedly causes a child emotional distress. This can be caused when a child is repeatedly rejected, isolated, or frightened by threats. It includes hostility, derogatory name-calling, put-downs and persistent coldness from a person. This behaviour is likely to impact on the emotional health and development of a child.

Emotional or psychological abuse is the most common type of child abuse.

Emotional or psychological abuse can include:

forcing a child to be humiliated or to perform a degrading act
scaring or causing a child to be fearful
rejecting or telling a child they are worthless, unwanted or unloved
undermining, blaming, scapegoating
constant criticism or unrealistic expectations
name calling, threats, making fun of the child
isolating a child from opportunities to learn, interactions with others
withholding attention, ignoring or never showing affection
discrimination, including being treated unfairly because of who you are or what you like
cultural abuse, when a child’s culture is ignored, denigrated or intentionally attacked
racism
experiences of distressing events including family violence, other types of violence and drug use
bullying.
What to look out for in students

Physical signs that may indicate emotional or psychological child abuse include:

speech disorders

for example, language delay, stuttering, the child being selectively mute or only speaking with certain people or in certain situations

delays in emotional, mental, or physical development. Behavioural signs that may indicate emotional or psychological child abuse include:
lack of apparent connection with parents
overly affectionate or clingy with strangers
anxious or vigilant disposition
emotional outbursts
problems interacting with other children appropriately
overly compliant, passive, and undemanding behaviour
behaviours that may be interpreted as demanding, aggressive or attention seeking
poor self-image and low self-esteem
unexplained mood swings, depression, self-harm, or suicidal thoughts
behaviours that are not age-appropriate (for example, overly adult or overly infantile)
fear of failure, overly high standards, and excessive neatness
poor social and interpersonal skills
violent drawings or writing
lack of positive social contact with other children.

Neglect

Neglect is a failure to provide a child with an adequate standard of nutrition, medical care, clothing, shelter or supervision. Neglect can be immediate or cumulative.

The neglect of a child:

can place the child’s immediate safety and development at serious risk or
may not immediately compromise the safety of a child but may result in longer term cumulative harm.

Under the Reportable Conduct Scheme, adults engaged by the school can show neglectful behaviours in different ways. This neglect may result in a failure to meet a child’s basic needs. These include:

supervisory neglect
physical neglect
educational neglect
emotional neglect.

The Commission for Children and Young People (CCYP) has published information sheets that describe how significant neglect is defined under the Reportable Conduct Scheme. See CCYP information sheet on significant neglect under the Reportable Conduct Scheme.

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Severity of neglect

The law differentiates between three different levels of neglect:

‘Minor’ neglect is low-level neglect that is trivial or temporary
‘Significant’ neglect is medium-level neglect. The neglect causes harm to a child that is more than trivial or temporary
‘Serious’ neglect is the highest level of neglect. It involves the continued failure to provide a child with the basic necessities of life. This may include cases where the health or physical development of a child is significantly impaired or placed at serious risk. Serious neglect can also occur if an adult fails to adequately ensure the safety of a child. This includes where the child is exposed to extremely dangerous or life-threatening situations.

Types of neglect

Some neglectful behaviours that can occur include:

Supervisory neglect – inattention by caregivers that can lead to physical harm, injury, sexual abuse or criminal behaviour.

This may also include not acting appropriately in relation to alleged abuse of a child.

Physical neglect – failure to provide physical necessities like food, clothing or shelter
Medical neglect – failure to provide or seek adequate medical care
Educational neglect – failure to provide a formal education either via school or registered home schooling.

In addition, preventing a child from gaining a school education without reasonable justification

Emotional neglect – failure to provide adequate nurturing, affection, encouragement and support for a child
Abandonment – leaving a child alone, in the care of another child or adult who is intoxicated or incapable of caring for a child for an unreasonable period.

What to look out for in students

Physical signs that may indicate neglect include:

being consistently hungry, tired, and zoned out
appearing withdrawn, pale and weak
having unattended health problems and a lack of routine medical care
untreated dental issues
appearing consistently dirty and unwashed
being consistently inappropriately dressed for weather conditions
having inadequate shelter and unsafe or unsanitary conditions. Behavioural signs that may indicate neglect include:
poor, irregular, or non-attendance at school
gorging when food is available or inability to eat when extremely hungry
asking or begging for, or stealing, food
aggressive behaviour or irritability
involvement in criminal activity
little positive interaction with a parent, carer, or guardian
excessive friendliness towards strangers
indiscriminate acts of affection
staying at school for long hours and refusing or being reluctant to go home
self-destructive behaviour
taking on an adult role of caring for parents.

Family violence

The Family Violence Protection Act 2008 (Vic) defines family violence as behaviour towards a current or former family member or intimate partner where the behaviour:

is physically or sexually abusive
is emotionally or psychologically abusive
is economically abusive
is threatening
is coercive
in any other way controls or dominates the family member or intimate partner and causes that person to feel fear for their safety or wellbeing or that of another person or pet.

A child or young person can be the victim of any of these behaviours.

Family violence includes behaviour that causes a child or young person to hear or witness, or otherwise be exposed to, these behaviours.

Children with previous experience of family violence are particularly vulnerable to further harm. This includes within the family and from other sources.

Intimate partners include:

spouses or domestic partners
people who are dating
people in intimate relationships. This may be more temporary or fluid in nature, which are more common among younger people.

This includes both current and former relationships.

For further guidance, see what is family violence?

See the following pages to know what to look for:

In the Family Violence Identification Tool and Family Violence Screening Tool, all staff and MARAM nominated staff can select signs of trauma, risk factors and narratives or behaviours in the available checklists. You can also record more information related to their observations.

Forced marriage

A forced marriage is when a person gets married without freely and fully consenting. This happens because:

they have been coerced, threatened or deceived
they are incapable of understanding the nature and effect of a marriage ceremony
they can’t consent because of age or mental capacity.

It includes marriage-like relationships where the marriage is not registered. For example, cultural or religious marriages.

In some cases, people go overseas without knowing that it’s for their own marriage. Their family may hold their passport to stop them from returning home.

Forced marriage is a crime in Australia. It is against the law to force someone to get married or to help make this happen. Forced marriages are different from arranged marriages. In an arranged marriage, the families may choose the partners, but both individuals choose to enter the marriage.

Forced marriage is an offence on its own and does not need to rely on slavery or human trafficking laws.

What to look out for in students

Anyone can be a victim of forced marriage, regardless of their religion, ethnicity, age, gender or sexual orientation.

Men and boys can be victims of forced marriage. However, most reported victims are young women and girls. A change in behaviour may be the only indicator that a child or young person is a victim of forced marriage.

Signs that may indicate forced marriage include:

a sudden announcement that the child or young person is engaged
a sudden announcement that the child or young will be leaving the country whilst siblings remain
a sudden change in domestic arrangements
their older brothers or sisters stopped going to school or were married early
they are highly controlled by family or community members in and outside of home, for example:

being the target of surveillance
always accompanied
limited or no control of finances
limited or no control over life decisions, education and career choices

they have their communications monitored or restricted
they are anxious, scared or nervous about an upcoming family holiday overseas
they demonstrate feelings of conflict or concern for the ramifications if they do not go ahead with an agreed marriage or engagement
they express concern of physical or psychological violence for not fulfilling family or community expectations
they spend a long time away from school
they do not come to, or suddenly withdraw from, school
depression, self-harming, social isolation, substance abuse
family disputes or conflict, family violence, abuse or running away from home.

Change or suppression (conversion) practices

Change or suppression (conversion) practices are deeply harmful practices which seek to change or hide an individual’s sexual orientation or gender identity.

Under Victorian law, a change or suppression (conversion) practice means conduct:

directed at an individual with or without their consent
because of their sexual orientation or gender identity
with the intention to change or induce that person to change or suppress their sexual orientation or gender identity.

Practices are based on the ideology that there is something wrong with or broken about people with diverse sexualities or gender identities. Practices can include:

teachings
counselling
spiritual care activities
other psychological or medical interventions.

For more information, refer to the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission.

Exposure to violent extremism

Violent extremism refers to a person or group who is willing to use violence, or advocates the use of violence by others, to achieve a political, ideological or religious goal.

Radicalisation is the process where a person becomes extreme in their thinking and behaviour.

Violent extremist organisations and individuals sometimes target and influence children and young people during vulnerable periods in their development. Children and young people may be exposed to violent extremist views, materials and ideologies.

Children and young people are at risk of exploitation and harm in these situations.

What to look out for in students

Children and young people who are at risk of radicalisation may have experienced a significant negative experience or be victims of bullying or discrimination. They may feel:

isolated and lonely or wanting to belong
unhappy about themselves and what others might think of them
embarrassed or judged about their culture, gender, religion or race
stressed or depressed
fed up with being bullied or treated badly by other people or by society
angry at other people or the government
confused about what they are doing
pressured to stand up for other people who are being oppressed. Radicalisation can be difficult to spot. Signs that may indicate a child or young person is being radicalised include:
a change in behaviour
a relatively sudden change in their worldview
changing their circle of friends
isolating themselves from family and friends
talking as if from a scripted speech
unwillingness or inability to discuss their views
a sudden disrespectful attitude towards others
increased levels of anger
increased secretiveness, especially around internet use
accessing extremist material online
using extremist or hate terms to exclude others or incite violence
writing or creating artwork promoting violent extremist messages. See here for further information.

Historical child abuse

For the purpose of this PROTECT website, historical child abuse refers to any type of child abuse that happened to a former student when they were at school, where that former student is now an adult.

Historical child abuse may be reportable conduct.

The term ‘historical child abuse’ only refers to the date of the abuse. It does not change the seriousness of the abuse. There is no time limit to report child abuse.

Historical child abuse might include child sexual abuse that happened in a school or institution many years or decades ago. It could also involve more recent incidents, reported only after the student had completed their schooling.

A former student from your school may be a victim of historical child sexual abuse. Victorian government schools must follow the guidance on historical child sexual abuse in Victorian Government schoolsin responding to these disclosures.

This guidance explains how to respond to matters relating to historical child sexual abuse with sensitivity, respect and accountability.

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Types of child abuse and what to look for

Schools

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On this page

Physical child abuse

Child sexual abuse

Grooming

Child sexual exploitation

Emotional or psychological child abuse

Neglect

Family violence

Forced marriage

Change or suppression (conversion) practices

Exposure to violent extremism

Historical child abuse

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